Chapter Outline Chapter 2

Chapter Outline Chapter 2 I. Developmental theories and the ejects they raise A. The Importance of Theories 1. Guides the collection of modernistic information a. what is most important to study b. what rear be hypothesized or predicted c. how it should be studied B. Qualities of a Good theory 1. Internally arranged its different parts ar not contradictory 2. Falsifiable gene prates strainable hypotheses 3. back up by data describes, predicts, and explains human organic evolution C. Four Major Theories (psychoanalytic, learning, cognitive ontogenyal, contextual/systems) D. Nature/Nurture 1. Nature genetic/biological predisposition . Nurture strain on welcome/ environmental equal E Goodness/Badness of Human Nature 1. Hobbes children are selfish and expectant and society must teach them to behave in a cultured way 2. Rousseau children are innately costly and society must not interfere with innate goodness 3. Locke child born neither good nor bad, but manage a tabula r asa or blank slate F. operation and Passivity 1. Activity control over ones emergence 2. Passive product of forces beyond ones control (environmental or biological) G. Continuity/Discontinuity 1. Continuity gradual flip (small steps) 2.Discontinuity abrupt change 3. soft or quantitative change a. qualitative changes in a form b. quantitative change in kind c. developmental maps part of discontinuity cost H. Universality/Context-Specificity 1. Universality developmental change common to everyone 2. Context-specific developmental changes go by individual/culture II. Freud Psychoanalytic theory A. Sigmund Freud Viennese medical student and Founder of Psychoanalytic Theory 1. Emphasis on motive and emotions of which we are unaware 2.. Theory little(prenominal) influential than in the past B. Instincts and unconscious Motives 1.Instincts inborn biological forces that motivate behavior 2. Unconscious motivation impulsive and inner force puzzle outs beyond our awareness/contro l 3. Emphasis on nature (biological instincts) C. Id, Ego, and Super egotism 1. Id a. all psychical energy contained here b. basic biological urges c. impulsive d. seeks immediate gratification 2. Ego a. rational side of temper b. ability to postpone pleasure 3. Superego a. internalized example standards b. perfection principle (adhere to moral standards) 4. Id, ego and crackego conflict common/inevitable 5. Problems arise when level of psychic energy unevenly distributed D.Psychosexual Development 1. Importance of libido sex instincts energy shifts body locations 2. Five gifts of psychosexual development a. oral phase b. anal stage c. phallic stage d. latency period e. genital stage 3. Conflict of id and social demands leads to egos exoneration mechanisms defense mechanisms unconscious coping mechanisms of the ego i. fixation Development arrested at primaeval stage ii. regression Retreat to earlier stage 4. Phallic stage Oedipus and Electra interwovenes (incestuous desire) resolve by identifying with kindred-sex parent and incorporating parents values into the super ego 5.Genital stage experienced during puberty a. conflict and distance from parents b. greater capacity to love and have children in adulthood c. teen pregnancy due to inability to manage sexual urges because of childhood experiences E. Strengths and Weaknesses 1. Difficult to tally and ambiguous 2. Weak support for specific aspects of the theory (e. g. , sexual subjection by parents) 3. Greater support for broad ideas a. unconscious motivation b. importance of early experience, especially parenting III. Erikson Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory A. Neo-Freudians Important Disciples of Psychoanalytic Theory 1.Notable neo-Freudians Jung, Horney, Sullivan, Anna Freud 2. Erikson is most important life span neo-Freudian theorist 3. Eriksons differences with Freud a. less furiousness on sexual and to a greater extent than on social kneads b. less emphasis on id, more on rational ego c. more positive view of human nature d. more emphasis on developmental changes in adulthood B. Psychosocial Development 1. Resolution of eight major(ip) psychosocial crises a. trust versus mistrust key is general responsiveness of caregiver b. self-sufficiency versus shame terrible twos c. initiative versus guilt preschool sense of autonomy d. ndustry versus unfavorable position elementary age sense of mastery e. identity versus role wonder adolescence acquisition of identity f. intimacy versus isolation young adult commission g. generativity versus stagnation middle age sense of having produced something meaningful h. integrity versus hopelessness elderly sense of life meaning and success 2. Personality strengths ego virtues developed during stages 3. Stage development due to biological maturation and environmental demands 4. Teen pregnancy explained as due to weak ego or super ego (management of sexual urges rooted in early childhood) C.Strengths and Weaknesses 1. Its emphases on rational, adaptive nature and social influences easier to accept 2. Captures some central development issues 3. Influenced thinking about adolescence and beyond 4. Like Freud, vague and difficult to test 5. Provides description, but not adequate explanation of development IV. Learning theories A. Watson genuine Conditioning 1. Emphasis on behavioral change in result to environmental stimuli 2. Behaviorism belief that only observed behavior should be studied 3. Rejected psychoanalytic theory and explained Freud using learning principles 4.Conducted immaculate learn research with colleague Rosalie Rayner Watson and Rayner condition infant Albert to fear rat a. loud noise was unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus b. vociferous (fear) was unconditioned (unlearned) receipt c. white rat became conditioned (learned) stimulus producing conditioned response of crying after it was paired with loud noise 5. Classical conditioning gnarled when children learn to love caring parents 6. Rej ect stage conceptualization of development 7. Learning is learning B. Skinner Operant Conditioning 1.In operant (instrumental) conditioning learning thought to become more or less presumptive depending on consequences 2. Reinforcement consequences that prove a response (increase probability of hereafter response) 3. Positive something added a. positive reinforcement something attractive added in attempt to intone behavior b. positive reinforcement best when continuous 4. Negative something removed a. negative reinforcement something unpleasant taken in attempt to strengthen behavior 5. Punishment consequences that suppress future response a. positive penalisation something unpleasant added in attempt to weaken behavior b. egative penalty something pleasant taken in attempt to weaken behavior 6. Extinction no consequence condition and behavior becomes less frequent 7. Skinner accentuate positive reinforcement in child rearing 8. Physical punishment best used in specific circ umstances like a. administered directly following act b. administered consistently following offense c. not also harsh d. accompanied by explanation e. administered by otherwise quick person f. combined with efforts to reinforcement acceptable behaviors 9. Too little emphasis on role of cognitive processes C.Bandura Social cognitive Theory 1. universe cognitive abilities distinguish them from animals can think about behavior and abide consequences 2. Observational learning (learning from models) most important mechanism for behavior change 3. Classic experiment using Bobo doll showed that children could learn from model 4. secondary reinforcement learner changes behaviors based on consequences observed being given to a model 5. Human agency ways in which human beings deliberately exercise control over environments and lives self-efficacy sense of ones ability to control self or environment 6.Reciprocal determinism mutual influence of individuals and social environments determ ines behavior 7. Doubt the existence of stages 8. View cognitive capacities as maturing over time 9. Learning experiences differentiate development of child of same age D. Strengths and Weaknesses of Learning Theory 1. Learning theories are precise and testable 2. Principles locomote across the life span 3. Practical applications 4. Doesnt show that learning really causes observed developmental changes 5. Oversimplifies development by focusing on experience and downplaying biological influences V. Cognitive developmental theoryA. Jean Piaget Swiss Scholar greatly Influences Study of Intellectual Development in Children 1. Emphasizes errors in thinking (wrong answers) 2. Argues that cognitive development is qualitative in nature B. Piagets Constructivism 1. Constructivism active construction of association based on experience 2. Stage progression due to interaction of biological maturation and environment C. Stages of Cognitive Development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, stately operations) 1. Sensorimotor stage a. birth to age 2 b. deal with gentlemans gentleman directly through perceptions and actions . unable to use symbols 2. Preoperational stage a. ages 2 to 7 b. capacity for symbolic thought c. lack tools of logical thought d. clingstone to ideas they want to be true 3. Concrete operations stage a. ages 7 to 11 b. use trial-and-error strategy c. perform mental operations in their heads d. difficulty with abstract and hypothetical concepts 4. Formal operations stage a. ages 11 and later b. think abstractly and can formulate hypotheses c. can devise grand theories about others D. Strengths and Weaknesses 1. Pioneer with long lasting impact 2. Many of Piagets concepts accepted (e. g. children active in own development) 3. potent in education and child rearing practices 4. Too little emphasis on motivation and emotion 5. Questioning of stage model 6. Underestimated childrens cognitive skills VI. Contextual/Systems Theories A. Chang es Over Life Span Arise from current Transactions and Mutual Influences Between Organism and Changing World No single end-point to development B. Vygotsky A Sociocultural status 1. Russian psychologist who took issue with Piaget 2. Sociocultural perspective development shaped by being growing in culture 3. Tools of a culture impact development . Cognitive development is social process 5. Children co-construct knowledge through social dialogues with others 6. give too little attention to biology C. Gottlieb An evolutionary/Epigenetic Systems View 1. several(prenominal) contextual/systems theories have arisen from work by evolutionary biologists a. influenced by Darwins work b. genes aid in adapting to the environment 2. Ethology study evolved behavior of species in natural environment a. birdsongs in the wild b. species-specific behavior of humans 3. Evolutionary/epigenetic systems perspective of Gottlieb a. evolution has endowed us with genes . predisposition to develop in cert ain direction genes do not dictate, make some outcomes more probable c. Gottleibs emphases i. activity of gene ii. activity of neuron iii. organisms behavior iv. environmental influences d. interaction between genes and environmental factors e. willing behaviors may not be expressed if environmental conditions do not exist i. duckling vocalizations ii. baby rats seeking water f. normal development is combine of normal genes and normal early experience g. experience can influence genetic activity and change course of development i. ice plug and impact on genes ii. lactose tolerance higher in cultures with dairy farm farming tradition h. difficult to predict outcome (multifactor influence) i. view mint in continual flux and change is inevitable D. Strengths and Weaknesses 1. Complex like human development 2. Cannot predict outcome (wide range of paths) VII. Theories in Perspective A. Stage Theorists Freud, Erikson, Piaget 1. Development guided in universal direction 2. Influenced by biological/maturational forces B. Learning Theorists Watson, Skinner, Bandura 1. Emphasis on influence of environment 2.Deliberate steps taken by parents to shape development C. Contextual and Systems Theorists Vygotsky, Gottleib 1. instruction on dynamic relationship between person and environment 2. think on impact of both biology and environment 3. Potential exists for qualitative and quantitative change 4. Developmental pathways depend on interplay of internal and foreign influences D. Changing World Views 1. Our understanding of human development is ever changing 2. Contextual/systems theories prevalent today 3. Less extreme, but more complex positions Copyright 2006 Thomson. All rights reserved.