Monitoring Therapeutic Drugs: Strategies

Monitoring Therapeutic Drugs StrategiesThis article provides an introduction into rough of the current techniques and searchs utilised in Therapeutic Drug Monitoring (TDM) TDM is a multi disciplinary voice that measures limited medicines at intervals to warrant a unremitting curative meanness in a affected affair blood stream. The infusion of an uninflected technique for TDM involves a choice in the midst of immunochemical strain and chromatography technique. genius quantify the methodology has been chosen, there be excessively legion(predicate) options available indoors these categories including FPIA, modus operandi over out, KIMS, HPLC and nephelometric immuno stop. An overview of each method is progressn and its processing of do do do dosessss. The futurity outlook in the methodology involved in TDM is as well as explored and discussed.INTRODUCTIONTherapeutic drug observe deviceing (TDM) is a multi disciplinary function that measures special ized drugs at selected intervals to ensure a constant curative con centimeration in a uncomplaining of blood stream. (Ju-Seop Kang Min Hoe Lee) The response to nearly drug concentrations is remedy, sub-therapeutic or toxic and the chief(prenominal) objective of TDM is to optimize the response so the blood serum drug concentration is retained within the therapeutic range. When the clinical proceeds give the gate be easily calculated much(prenominal) as amount of m matchlessy rate or blood pressure, adjusting the dose according to the response is decent (D.J. Birkett et al). The practice of TDM is requisite if the drug meets the following criteriaHas a narrow therapeutic rangeIf the level of drug in the plasma is directly comparative to the adverse toxicIf there is appropriate covers and organizations available for the management of therapeutic drugs.If the drug effect bottomlandnot be assessed by clinically observing the patient (Suthakaran and C.Adithan)A list of commonly monitored drugs is given in table 1.The advances in TDM own been assisted by the availability of immunoassay and chromatographic methods coupled to sleuthing methods. Both techniques meet the systemic requirements of sensitivity, precision and accuracy. Within both(prenominal) methods ar m any numerous options and will be further explored in this title. Ideally the analytical method chosen should distinguish between drug molecules and substances of similar composition, detect minute quantities, be easy to adapt within the laboratory and be unaffected by other drugs administrated. An overview of the current analytical techniques and future trends in TDM is emphasised in this title and its role in laboratory medicine.NEPHLEOMETRIC immunoassay AND its affair IN TDMImmunoassays play a diminutive role in the monitoring of therapeutic drugs and a range of techniques in which the immunoassay can be existed exist. Nephleometric immunoassays ar widely wontd for TDM and atomic enactment 18 based on the principle of hapten drug inhibition of immuno fall. The hardihood is measured using nephelometric principles that measure the degree of gentle sprinkle pass waterd. In some cases Turbidmetry principles can be applied to measure precipitation via the amount of transversal giddy.In nephleometric immunoassays, if the drug molecule is a monovalent antigenic substance, a soluble immuno interwoven is formed. However if the drug molecule is a multivalent antigenic substance, whereby two drug moieties ar fluxd to a carrier protein, the immix reacts with the antibody to form an insoluble compound. The insoluble complex whitethorn compose of numerous antigens and antibodies, thus dissipate the light. Therefore nephleometry of turbidmetry techniques ar required to measure the reaction. In respect to this principle precipitation inhibition of a drug can be measured. The mental testing savour (serum) is introduced to a fixed quantity of polyhapt enic antigen and anti drug antibody. The serum drug antigen competes with polyhaptenic antigen for carrying to the anti drug antibody. any(prenominal) free drug march in the expect inhibits the precipitation between the antibody and polyhaptenic antigen. Therefore the drug concentration ids indirectly equaliseral to the formation of accrue which is quantified by a nephelometer. The more polyhaptenic antigen give way, the more precipitate is formed until the utmost is encountered. Further addition of antigen ca utilisation of goods and servicess a reduction in the amount of precipitate formed collectable to antigen excess. The use up of nephelometric immunoassay for TDM is termed agonistic imputable to the militant entertaining for the sites on the antibody by the antigen. It also distinguishes the drug assay system from the accomplished nephleometric immunoassay for proteins.Variations of this assay exist includingThe use of saliva or CSF may be used as an election to serum. Both ersatz matrixes contain less light scattering molecules and so a large-mouthedr volume of sample is used in order to compensate.Turbidmetric methods may also be applied to quantitative immunoprecipation . turbidmetric analysis is preformed at a frown wavelength and similarly detects immunoprecipation like nephelometric techniques.End point analysis of immunoprecipitaion is commonly industrious, until now rate analysis is also applicable. Addition of formaldehyde blocks further precipitation and is utilised in end point analysis.Agglutination inhibition immunoassay can also be detected by nephelometric immunoassay systems in which the drug or hapten is directly consorted onto the surface of the particle and is loosely suitable for low serum drug concentration duration precipitation inhibition detects concentration above 1ug/mlIf homologus and heterologus drug concentrations are utilize for antibody and polyhaptenic antigen preparations, sensitivity and specific ity may be increased.Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies may be employed in this assay. The use of monoclonal antibodies removes any interference caused by antibody surmount reactivity. Choosing a hybrid cell with the most desirable antibody is difficult and consequently is most presumable to be less sensitive than the use of polyclonal antibodiesboilersuit the nephelometric immunoassay is an excellent assay system for TDM. Advantages over other assay systems include its simplicity, speed and low bell. It is a homogenous method that requires no breakup clapperclaws or isotopes. Only two reagents are required in limited amounts as if the antibody to antigen ratio is not optimum, the sensitivity is diminishd. This is due to the formation of less precipitate in the absence of drug. In the posture of a drug, inhibition is less efficient. The sensitivity of the assay depends on antibody hapten binding, even it yields laid-back specificity. Therefore nephelometric precipitation inhibition immunoassays are a novel technique in the clinical practice of TDM.(Takaski Nishikawa Vol 1, 1984)FLUORESCENCE POLARIZATION IMMUNOASSAY AND its USE IN TDMFluorescence polarization immunoassay(FPIA) is a widely used 2 step homogenous assay that is conducted in the ascendent phase and is based on a rise in fluorescence polarization due to the binding of the light labeled antigen with antibody. The scratch step of the immunoassay involves the incubation of the serum sample with none labelled anti drug antibody. If the patient sample contains drug molecules, immune complexes will form between antibody and antigen. The import stage of this assay involves the addition of a flourscein labelled antigen (tracer) into the mixture(.Jacqueline Stanley 2002) The purpose of the flourscein tracer is to bind on any available sites on the drug specific antibody for spotting purposes. If the first stage occurred in which the anti drug antibody formed a complex with the drug from the sample, less or no antigen binding sites will be available for the tracer to bind to. Consequently a higher proportion of the flourscein tracer is unbound in the solution. If the sample contains no drug an antigen, tread 1 does not occur and the anti drug antibodies will bind the flourscein antigen tracer. In this assay the degree of polarization is indirectly proportional to the concentration of drug present. ( Chris Maragos 2009)Fluorescence polarization is calculated to determine the concentration of drug present. Fluorscein labelled molecules rotate when they interact with polarised light. Larger complexes rotate less then littler complexes and therefore remain in the light path. When the large immune complex is labelled with a fluorescent tracer, it is easily detected once present in the light path. If no drug was present in the sample, the availability of binding sites on the antibody entices the fluorscein tracer to bind, restricting its motion resulting in a higher degree o f polarisation, Thus it is easy to identify that polarization is indirectly proportional to the concentration of drug present. The benefit of utilising FPIA in TDM includes the elimination of touch to separate bound and free labels, an indicator that this assay is time efficient. An strange feature of this assay is that the label used is a flurophore and the analytical signboard involves the measurement of the fluorescent polarization. ( Jacqueline Stanley 2002)A standard curve is constructed to determine the concentration of drug present and is easily reproducible due to the stability of the reagents utilise and the simplicity of the method. However FPIA has some limitations and is prone to interference from light scattering and endogenous fluorescent tracers in the samples. To help overcome these limitations variations on the technique is employed includingUse of a long wavelength labelThe fluorscein tracers utilized produce adequate signals, however light scattering events ca n interfere with these signals. The use of a long wavelength label permits extended fluorescence relaxation times which may be more sensitive for the detection of high molecular metric weight unit antigens on drugs.Use of CE-LIFThe use of capillary electrophoresis with laser generate fluorescence detection enhances the sensitivity of this method. This competitive FPIA separates free and antibody bound tracers and utilizes LIFP as a detection system.( David S. Smith Sergei A 2008)Overall FPIA has proven to be a time and cost effective, accurate and sensitive technique in TDM and trunk one of the most promising methods in this clinical field.ENZYME MULTIPLIED IMMUNOASSAY TECHNIQUE AND its USE IN TDMEnzyme Multiplied Immunoassay Technique (EMIT) is an modernistic version of the general immunoassay technique utilising an enzyme as a marker. EMIT is a 2 stage assay that qualitatively detects the presence of drugs in urines and quantitatively detects the presence of drugs in serum.( David S. Smith Sergei A )Both the competitive and non-competitive forms of this assay are homogenous binding based that fastly analyze mcg quantities of drug in a sample. in the competitive assay, the patient sample is incubated with anti drug antibodies. Antibody antigen reactions occur if there is any drug present in the sample. The numerate of unbound sites indirectly correlates with the drug concentration present. The second step involves the addition of an enzyme labelled specific drug which will bind to available binding sites on the antibody inactivating the enzyme. A enzyme widely used in EMIT assays is Glucose 6 Phosphate Dehydrogenase which primarily oxidises the substrate added (Glucose 6 Phosphate). The co- factor in nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide+ is also decrease to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotideH by the active enzyme. Any enzyme drug conjugate that is unbound remains active, therefore only in this case , can the oxidation of NAD+ to NADH occur. An increase in exhaustance photometrically 340nm correlates with the amount of NADH produced. (Jacqueline Stanley 2002)A non competitive format of this assay also exists, where by drug specific antibodies are added in excess to the sample resulting in antigen antibody interactions if the drug is present. A fixed amount of enzyme drug conjugate is then added which occupy any unbound sites present on the antibody. The active enzyme that is unbound oxidised NAD+ to NADH indicating presence of free enzyme conjugate and subsequently drug molecules present. (chemistry.hull.ac.uk/)EMIT engineering is decent increasingly popular as a method to monitor therapeutic drug levels. Drugs monitored using this technique includes anti asthmatic drugs, anti epileptic drugs and cardio active drugs. Radioimmunoassay work on the aforesaid(prenominal) principle as competitive EMIT with the exception of the use of a radio isotope as a marker. Gamma radiation is emitted from the marker leading to a high level of sensitivity and specificity. As it uses radio isotopes it is not the most cost effective in todays modern environment.MICROPARTICLE IMMUNOASSAY AND its USE IN TDM littleparticle agglutination technology uses latex littleparticles and plays a leading role in TDM in the quantitative measurement of carbarbapenzaine, phenytoin, theophylline and phenybarbital. Kinetic movement of microparticles in solution (KIMS) is a homogenous assay and is based on the principle of competitive binding between microparticles via covalent coupling. When free drug exists in the patient sample, it will bind to the antibody present. As a result the microparticle antigen complex shit to bind with the antibody and the formation of a particle aggregate does not occur. Micro particles in solution fail to scatter light causing a low absorbance reading. If the patient sample is negative for the drug, the micro particle drug complex binds to the antibodies. The complex that is formed upon binding blocks the tr ansmitted light and causes light scattering resulting in increasing absorbance readings. Hence the degree of light scattering is inversely related to the concentration of drug present.Light scattering spectrometry improves the sensitivity and quantitation of particle based immunoassays, thus making KIMS a extremely sensitive and accurate technique in TDM. Its popularity has developed byout the age for some reasons. Reagents required for this assay are in expensive and adopt high stability. KIMS is a universal assay and can be preformed on a variety of analyzers. The assay has minimal interference as a castrate of absorbance is measured as a function of time bit absorbance readings of interfering substances do not alter with time.( Frederick P. Smith, Sotiris A. Athanaselis)CHROMATOGRAPHY AND its USE IN TDMFor legion(predicate) long time liquid chromatography has been linked to detection systems and its application in TDM is becoming incredibility popular. Liquid chromatogra phy was initially employed in response to difficulties arising in Gas Chromatography (G.C) due to heat instability and non specific adsorption on surfaces. High Performance Liquid chromatography is the main chromatography technique utilized for TDM. switch off Layer Chromatography (T.L.C) and Gas Chromatography are other alternatives, however have limitations that stifle their use in TDM. A derivatization step must be performed for extremely polar and thermo liable drugs for G.C to be successful. TLC has a poor detection limit and is unable to detect low concentration of drug present. HPLC has revolutionized the monitoring of TDM with rapid speed and sensitivity of analysis and can separate a wider variety of drugs compared to GC and TLC. For this reason, HPLC is considered the most widely adaptable chromatographic technique when coupled with UV detection and Mass Spectrophotometry for TDM.( Phyllis R. Brown, Eli Grushka)BASIC PRINCIPLES IN HPLCHPLC is a separation technique perf ormed in the agile phase in which a sample is broken down into its basic constituents. HPLC is a separation technique that employs distri howeverion differences of a compound over a stationary and sprightly phase. The stationary phase is composed of a thin spirit level created on the surface of fine particles and the mobile phase flows over the fine particles while carrying the sample. Each component in the analyse moves by means of the column at a different speed depending on solubility in the phases and on the molecule size. As a result the sample components move at different paces over the stationary phase becoming separated from one another. Drugs that are localised in the mobile phase migrate fast as to those that are situated in the stationary phase. The drug molecules are washd off the column by gradient elution. Gradient elution refers to the steady change of the eluent composition and strength over the run of the column. As the drug molecules elute of HPLC is linked t o a detection system to detect the quantity of drug present in the sample. Detection systems include mass spectrophotometry and UV detection. (Mahmoud A. Alabdalla daybook of Clinical Forensic Medicine)DETECTION SYSTEMS USED IN HPLC FOR TDMDetection of HPLC with a diode array ultraviolet detector has proved to be a sustainable application system in the identification after HPLC analysis. The use of UV detection allows the online possession the compounds UV spectra. These detection system absorb light in the range of 180-350nm. UV light transmitted passes through a sensor and from that to the photoelectric cell. This output is modified to appear on the potentiometric recorder. By placing a monochromatoer between and light source and the cell, a specific wavelength is created for the detection , thus improving the detectors specificity. A wide band light source can also be used as an alternative method. In this case the light from the cell is optically dispersed and allowed to fall o n the diode array.( Mahmoud A. Alabdalla Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine)HPLC can also be coupled to a mass spectrophotometer as a detection method. Mass spectrophotometry (MS) elucidates the chemical structure of a drug. Sensitivity of this technique is discovered as it can detect low drug concentration in a sample. Specificity of this method can be futher enhanced by tandem bicycle mass spectrophotometric analysis. This involves multiple steps of mass spectrophotometry. This is accomplished by separating singular mass spectrometer elements in space or by separating MS phases in time. (Franck Saint-Marcoux et al)FUTURE TRENDS IN TDM METHODOLOGYAGILENTS 1200 HPLC MICRO CHIPAgilents 1200 HPLC micro chip technology combines microfliudics with an easy use interface that confines the HPLC function tot his dynamic chip. The micro chip technology integrates analytical columns, micro cuvette connections and a metal coated electro spray tip into the chip to function as a regular HP LC analyzer. The compact chip reduces peak spreading for a complete sensitive and precise technique. The microchip comes complete with an coordinated LC system into sample enrichment and separation column. The operation of the chip is well be and manageable upon insertion into the Agilent interface which mounts onto the mass spectrophotometer. The built in motorcar sampler loads the samples and the sample is moves into the trapping column by the mobile phase. Gradient flow from the pump moves the sample from the trapped column to the separation column. The drug is separated the like as the convention methods however reduced peak dispersion does produce better separation efficiency than the conventional method. This form of technology is currently in use in the fall in States but has not developed outside of the U.S(http//www.agilent.com)PHYZIOTYPE SYSTEMThis is the latest application on the market for the treatment and monitoring of drugs associated with metabolic disorders. T he PhyzioType system utilizes deoxyribonucleic acid markers from several genes coupled with biostatisical knowledge to predict a patients risk of evolution adverse drug reactions. (Kristen k. Reynolds Roland Valdes)AMPLICHIP CYP450 TESTThe Amplichip CYP450 Test is a new technology that has revolutionised the TDM of anti psychotic drugs. This test has been approved by the FDA in 2006 but is not currently in use in laboratories in Ireland. This test is used for the analysis of CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 genes, both of which have an influence in drug metabolism. The function of this test is to identify a patient genotype so their phenotype is calculated. Based on the patient phenotype, a clinician determines the type of therapeutic dodge he/she will commence (Kristen k. Reynolds Roland Valdes)DISCUSSIONThis root illustrates the increasing role of immunoassay and chromatography techniques in the clinical laboratory routine monitoring of therapeutic drugs. Before an analytical technique is introduced into TDM it must meet the requirements of sensitivity, accuracy and specificity infallible for most TDM applications. The methodology of TDM in todays clinical setting revolves around the use of immunoassays and chromatography techniques. A range of immunoassays was discussed revolving around their principle and advantages and limitations. The majority of immunoassays utilised in the TDM are homogenous based for rapid analysis and efficient turn around time for drug monitoring. Most immunoassays involved in TDM are based on the same principle of competitive binding for antibody. The factor that distinguishes each immunoassay is the detection methods used. Detection methods discussed in this reviewed include nephelometric techniques, flourscein labels, enzyme labels and the use of micro particles. Each method relies on different detection principles as discussed, however characteristics common to all methods include accuracy, sensitivity and specificity. The methodologies discussed also are time and cost efficient, both essential in laboratory assays. chromatographical techniques are also discussed with HPLC providing the most impact to TDM. Gas and thin layer chromatography are other chromatographic techniques, however neither can be utilised in TDM due to the limitations both techniques hold against TDM. . HPLC is a rapid sensitive method for the quantitation of drugs in a sample and for this reason is the most widely adaptable chromatographic technique applied in TDM. exchangeable all chromatographic techniques drugs are separated based on the interaction of the drug with the stationary phase which determines the elution time. Detection methods primarily used are UV detection and mass spectrophotometryThe final thought on this overview of TDM was an cleverness into the future of its methodology and applications .Future and approved methods are discussed given a outline outline on each. The constant development of methodologies and techniques i n this area of TDM are ongoing constantly keeping the area of TDM one of the most meteoric and interesting in clinical medicine.Literature Review The Impact Of Legalized stillbirthLiterature Review The Impact Of Legalized AbortionThe publication of the controversial paper on court-orderedised stillbirth and its affect on the rate of curse by Levitt and Donohue (2001) has resulted in widespread condemnation from a variety of sources, for example, Joseph Scheidler, executive education of the Pro-Life Action league, described the paper as so fraught with stupidity that I hardly know where to start refuting itCrime unrelenting sharply in the United States in the 1990s, in all categories of detestation and all parts of the nation. Homicide rates plunged 43 percent from the peak in 1991 to 2001, arrive at the lowest levels in 35 years. The Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) savage and property wickedness indexes fell 34 and 29 percent, respectively, over that same period. (Levitt, 2004)In his journal The impact of Legalized abortion on offensive activity Levitt attempts to shot evidence that the legitimation of abortion in 1973 was the chief contributor to the juvenile crime reductions of the 1990s.Levitts venture is that legalized abortion may lead to reduced crime either through reductions in cohort sizes or through spurn per capita offending rates for affected cohorts. The smaller cohort that results from abortion legalization means that when that cohort reaches the late teens and twenties, there will be less young males in their peak crime years, and thus less crime. He argues that the decision in Roe v Wade constitutes an abrupt legal development that can possibly have an abrupt influence 15-20 years later when the cohorts born in the wake of liberalized abortion would start reaching their peak crime years. In essence, Levitt puts forward the theory that unsought children are more likely to become troubled adolescents, prone to crime an d drug use, than wanted children are. As abortion is legalized, a whole generation of unwanted births are averted leading to a drop in crime two decades later when this phantom generation would have grown up. To back up this point, Levitt makes use of a platform from previous work such as (Levine et al 1996) and (Comanor and Phillips 1999) who suggest that women who have abortions are those most likely to give birth to children who would engage in criminal activity. He also builds on earlier work from (Loeber and Stouthamer-Loeber 1986) who concludes that an adverse family environment is strongly linked to future criminality.Although keen not to be encroach into the moral and ethical implications of abortion, Levitt, through mainly empirical evidence is able to back up his hypothesis by concluding that a negative relationship between abortion and crime does in fact exist, showing that an increase of 100 abortions per cat valium live births reduces a cohorts crime by roughly 10 per cent and states in his conclusion that legalized abortion is a primary explanation for the large drops in crime seen in the 1990s.One of the criticisms that can be levied against this claim is its failure to take into consideration the effect other factors may have had in influencing crime rates during the 1980s and 1990s, such as the pick wave. Accounting for this factor, the abortion effect may have been mitigated slightly. excessively Levitts empirical work failed to take into account the greater number of abortions by African Americans who he distinguishes as the race which come out the most amount of violent crime, and his evidence fails to identify whether the drop in crime was due to there being a relative drop in the number of African Americans.The list of possible explanations for the sudden and sharp decrease in crime during the 1990s doesnt stop at Levitts abortion/crime theory and Levitt himself in his 2004 paper identifies three other factors that have played a cri tical role.The first is the rising prison population that was seen over the same time period, and (Kuziemko and Levitt, 2003) attribute this to a sharp rise in internment for drug related offences, increased parole revocation and longer sentences pass out for those convicted of crimes, although there is the possibility of a substitution effect taking place where punishment increases for one crime, potential criminals may choose to commit alternative crimes instead.There are two ways that increasing the number of person incarcerated could have an influence on crime rates. Physically removing offenders from the community will mean the avoidance of any future crime they may plausibly commit during the time they are in prison know as the incapacitation affect. Also there is the deterrence effect, through raising the expect punishment cost potential criminals will be less inclined(p) to commit a crime. As criminals face bounded rationality, expected avail gained from crime will ha ve an effect on the amount of time spent devoted to crime. (Becker, 1968).A study conducted by Spelman (2000) examined the affect the enslavement rate would have on the rate of crime and finds the relationship to have an elasticity measure of -0.4 which means that an increase in the levels of incarceration of one percent will lead to a drop in crime of 0.4%.In Economic models of crime such as Becker (1968), improvements in the decriminalize labor market make crime less attractive as the return earned from legitimate work increases. Using this model, the sustained economical growth that was seen in the 1990s (Real GDP per capita grew by almost 30% between 1991 and 2001 and unemployment over the same period fell from 6.8 to 4.8 percent) could be seen as a contributing factor to the drop in crime witnessed and many scholars (such as) have come to that conclusion. However, the improved macroeconomic performance of the 90s is more likely to be relevant in terms of crimes that have fin ancial gains such as burglary and auto theft and does not explain the sharp decrease seen in homicide rates. Also, the large increase in crime seen in the mid-sixties coincided with a decade of improving economic growth, further corroborating the weak link between macroeconomics and crime (Levitt, 2004).One other explanation for the drop in crime and the most commonly cited reason can be seen in the growing use of police innovation, and an adoption of community policing. The idea caulescent from the broken window theory, which argues that minor nuisances, if left unchecked, turn into major nuisances (Freakonomics)The main problem with the policing explanation is that innovative police practices had been implemented after the crime rate had already began declining, and perhaps more importantly, the rate of crime dropped in cities that had not experienced any major changes in policing (Ouimet, 2004).

A Study On Internet Banking In Nepal

A learning On profits Banking In NepalThis query is the effort for register and analyzing the earnings Banking in Nepal Bank Limited. net income Banking can be defined as the use of technology to communicate instructions to and receive culture from a financial refuge w present an sexual conquest is held. internet Banking includes the arrangements that modify financial institution customers, individuals or businesses, to assenting accounts, transact business or obtain training on financial products and service by means of a public or private network, including the earnings.Since the launch of network the large planet has become a smaller one. It has rendered enormous impacts on business beas. Remarkable emergence in development and Communication Technology (ICT) has introduced a global revolution in banking industry. The global trend in business bena set few challenge that cannot be fulfilled with the help of the traditional banking system.The survey of verit able banking system in Nepal reveals the fact that it requires rapid modification and adaptation to musical accompaniment harmony with the world economy business. It becomes more obvious by notice the increased number of customers in or so modern bank art object others be losing them.The existing banking system in our country is slow and error-prone. In one hand, fails to meet the customers demand and it causes some significant losses both(prenominal) for the banking authority and divvy uprs. E-Banking, on the other hand solves the above problems. Furthermore, it opens up some other salient aspects much(prenominal) as increased fo reign trade and foreign investment.Most plan allow customers to perform all figure transactions, much(prenominal) as account transplants, balance inquires, bill hires and stop defrayment requests everything however its very easy to set up an account. We can regain our account cultivation anytime day or night and we can do it from anywhere. A few online banks update information in real time, sequence others do it daily.1.2 Introduction of Origin and Growth of Bank in NepalThe increase of banking in Nepal is not so long. In comparing with other create or developed country, the institutional information in banking system of Nepal is farther behind. Nepal had to wait for a long time to come to this present banking position. The course of bank in Nepal and its beginning of growth is controversial.Even though the particularised date of the beginning of money and banking deal in Nepal is not obvious, it is speculated that during the reign of the King Manadev, the coin Manank and Gunank during the reign of the King Gunakamadev were in use. subsequently the make-up of Nepal Bank Limited on 30th Karkik, 1994 (1938), modern banking system started in Nepal.Under the Nepal Rastra Bank Act 2012 (1956), Nepal Rastra Bank was turn outed in 2013(1957) Baisakh fourteenth in Nepal. But this act has been repealed and the Nepal Rastra Bank Act 2058(2002) has been enacted by the parliament. After its establishment, it issued the Nepali notes on 7th Falgon 2016 for the first time.Gradually, bank develop their service in Nepal according to requirement of customers and to compete market so at once we can transact via non cash elements desire profit Banking, Credit Card, asynchronous transfer mode Card and SMS banking and so on1.3 Nepals ICT BackgroundNations worldwide admit recognized development opportunities and challenges of the emerging information age characterized by Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). These technologies ar driving matter development efforts worldwide and a number of countries in both developing and the developed world are exploring ways of facilitating their development process through development, deployment and the exploitation of ICT within their economies and societies.Nepals journey into the world of information technology began some ternary decades back with the use of IBM 1401 for the population census, 1971. over-embellished Nepal Academy for Science and Technology (RONAST), for the first time, use the internet. Mercantile mystic Limited started email function for commercial purpose in June 1994. In 1995 government purchased the machine for further info processing in the pectus of Statistics and established a separate organization called Electronic info impact Center (EDPC) and after 6 years it converted to National computing device Center (NCC).Government has formed High Level Commission for Information Technology (HLCIT), which is playing the role of facilitator between private and public sector in the development of ICT in Nepal.1.4 Introduction of Internet BankingInternet banking refers to systems that enable bank customers to access accounts and general information on bank products and services through a personal estimator (PC) or other brainy device.Internet banking products and services can include wholesale products for corporate customers as well as retail and fiduciary products for consumers. Ultimately, the products and services obtained through Internet banking may mirror products and services offered through other bank livery channels. Some instances of wholesale products and services includeCash management.Wire transfer.machine- visitled clearinghouse (ACH) transactions.Bill presentment and payment.Examples of retail and fiduciary products and services include offset inquiry.Funds transfer.Downloading transaction information.Bill presentment and payment.Loan applications.Investment activity. another(prenominal) value-added services.Other Internet banking services may include providing Internet access as an Internet Service Provider (ISP). The OCC has determined that a national bank subsidiary may provide home banking services through an Internet connection to the banks home banking system and, incidental to that service, may to a fault provide Internet access to bank customers victimiza tion that service. Historically, banks use up use information systems technology to process checks (item processing), drive ATM machines (transaction processing), and produce reports (management information systems). In the past, the computer systems that made the information systems operate were rarely detect by customers. Today, Web sites, electronic mail, and electronic bill presentment and payment systems are an important way for banks to reach their customers.1.5 Statement of the ProblemEstablishing Internet Banking infrastructure has been a challenging task for the developing countries like Nepal. In the context of Nepal there are ample of problems in Internet Banking some of them are given below Computer and Banking Literacy In aggregate here is low object lens of IT literacy. Very few people are computer literate in Nepal and very few people transform banking system or banking process even educated people in like manner there. bag Development Though banks reach with t heir services in rural area ISP or NTC services is not available there for internet services and vice versa.Risk Management In Nepal, Internet Banking is at its babyhood right now. However, no Internet Banking frauds have been found yet. Lack of apprehensiveness of internet technology may be the reason. But precaution mustiness be taken.In order to mitigate the risks associated with all e-banking businesses, banks should have in place a comprehensive risk management process that assesses risks, control risk exposure and monitors risks.Security Security of a transaction, authenticity of a deal, identification of a customer etceteraare important technological and systems issues, which are major sources of concern to e-banking. Customers are afraid from online attack. Various online attacks are also available.1.6 Objectives of the written reportThe main objectives of proposed query are to aim, analyze and understand the Internet Banking of Nepal Bank Limited. Some of the other objectives are as follows To identify the problems in existing Internet Banking services of NepalAre public satisfy or not from Internet banking Services ? If not what go out be the strong service delivery mechanism.To identify the prerequisites to get the Internet Banking servicesThe research tell prerequisites to get Internet Banking services (for e.g. Computers, telephones, internet, customer should be account holder of bank)To examine the service delivery of different banks of NepalThe research includes various(a) types of Internet Banking services provided by different banks to general public.1.7 Scope of the StudyThe study will be mainly focused on three components of the study area Social aspects In social aspect the canvass is focus on public participation according to their satisfaction, knowledge, beliefs, values etc.Technical aspects This aspects is concerned with the technically how to develop system and technology used on projects.Economic aspects In the economic analysis part, the study will focus on the possible areas of economic development by using this Internet Banking.1.8 Limitation of the StudyThis research is the small effort for study and analyzing the Internet Banking services of Nepal which has limited time so it cannot focus on all areas and may not be able to explore galore(postnominal) fields. This research work is done within limited time sick during the MBS dissertation. There are so many constraints while doing the work such as inadequate time, load shedding, and resources etc. To understand methodology of Internet Banking service is very difficult because banks only provide surface level of information because of their security concern.In spite of great effort, there are many limitations of this research work. The major limitations are as follows In the field of E-banking, there are so many arenas like ATM, Tele Banking, Mobile Banking etc. but this research does not focus on all the e-banking services. research works mainly focus on Internet Banking.Fund transfer is possible within the branch of bank. It means once cannot transfer come in from one bank to another bank.Banks have their own policy but there is no any standard policy for Internet Banking in Nepal.In the field of Internet Banking security is must but this research doe not cover all the aspects of security.General customers and corporate customers of Internet Banking system have same kinds of facilities.1.9 Organization of the StudyThis study is nonionic and decorated in seven chapters. Each chapter and unit will be on a prescribed format of thesis writing to the partial fulfillment of MBS program. Each unit gives the clear picture or roadmap of the study.Chapter integrityThis chapter deals with Introduction of The Study. In this chapter, separated unit for background, significances objective and limitation of the study has mentioned.Chapter TwoThis chapter focused Review of Literature. In this chapter, various relevant such as d ifferent books, journals, article and previous thesis mention has mentioned.Chapter trioThird chapter presented query Methodology. In this chapter, research heading, sources of the data, method of data army and analysis has mentioned.Chapter FourThis chapter deals with Analysis of Internet Banking. This chapter provides the different analysis like strength, weakness, opportunity, threat (SWOT) analysis and feasibility analysis of Internet banking.Chapter Five 5th chapter deals with Internet Banking Security. Security in Internet Banking comprises both the computer and communication security. Therefore this chapter consist different security principles, cryptographic key management, maraud etc.Chapter SixThis chapter focused on System Analysis and design to present the current Internet Banking system. This chapter provides requirement analysis, process modeling, data dictionary, hardware and software requirement to execute program.Chapter SevenS returnh chapter presented with S ummary, Conclusions and Recommendation of the Study.1.10 Research DesignThere are two types of research approaches soft and quantitative. In the quantitative approach firmnesss are based on numbers and statistics that are presented in figures, whereas in the qualitative approach where focus lies on describing an event with the use of words.This study is the result of qualitative research using comparative and analytical methods. The comparative research was conducted in two ways Firstly, the comparison is carried out by canvass the availability of basic services of Internet Banking in different banks of Nepal. Secondly, the comparison is also carried out by investigating the different features offered by banking institutions in Nepal. For that purpose, reviews of website from banks are conducted.Thus to gain realistic knowledge of Internet Banking in the Nepali context, this research is conducted as a qualitative study to explore the perception of Internet Banking among Nepali Banks. Hence, the aim is not to make any simplification but instead establish a closer contact with the objectives of prior research which intend to provide us a deeper understanding of the participants attitudes and perceptions. Finally my intention with this research is to understand Internet Banking first describe and explore, find and analysis detailed information about Internet banking services provided by different banks of Nepal so qualitative approach is the most suitable method for my research.1.11 Source of Data two simple as well as secondary data have been collected in order to achieve the real and factual result out of this research. All possible and useful data available have been collected. The major sources of data are as follows a. Primary SourceThe primary data are collected from primary sources. The primary sources of data are the opinion survey through questionnaire, field visit and information original from the respondents. Some of the information was also co llected from interview with the respondents.b. Secondary DataThe secondary data are collected from secondary sources. The secondary sources of data are the information received from books, journals and article concerned with the study for example website of the Nepal Bank Limited, thesis and dissertation submitted at Shanker Dev Campus, Central Library T.U.

Art in the Villa Farnesina

Art in the Villa FarnesinaThis magnificent loggia, projected by Raphael and mostly painted by his crew of helpers in 1518, shows a great numerate of skill. Originally the principal(prenominal) villa entrance p abided here and the way of life was an inconsiderate loggia. The walls imitate realistic architectural form using light and thattocks to trick viewers with illusion. Nature plays an important role through the copiousness of vegetation in the ornaments outlining the chapiter and its partitions, and the illusion of thumb along the apex and semi-circle lunettes. The fruit and vegetables take aim an enormous amount of detail, many of which were modeled later on the variety of exotic and well maintained plants in the glorious gardens. The show scheme in this room feels very cool. The pinkish shades of shinny t oneness pop out from the capital and the interplay between the characters shows a advantage of space and expression.The ceiling depicts of story of Amour a nd Psyche as narrated in Apuleiuss Golden Ass. Legend has it, Psyche was the most beautiful child of poove Anatolia. Jealous of her, Venus (Aphrodite) asks her son Cupid (Eros) to pierce Psyche with a sumptuous arrow so she would fall in admire with the ugliest man on earth. He agrees but falls in love with her instead. The twain marry, but Psyche upsets Cupid. Advised by the gods, Psyche sets out to regain Cupids love through service. She until nowtually asks Venus for aid. Venus orders Psyche to perform a series of near impossible tasks. With the aid of others she completes enough for Cupid to forgive her. He flies to Mount Olympus and asks Jove to help save Psyche from the last task. Jove does and during a formal council declares his approval of the conjugal union between Cupid and Psyche. Later, Cupid fetches Psyche and she drinks immortalizing Ambrosia. The two obligate a child named Volupta (Bliss or Delight) and Venus and Psyche reconcile.The entire ceiling focuses aro und the dramatic love story full of suit of clothes, danger, jealously and pleasure. The two main impanels show the Council of the Gods and the Marriage of Cupid and Psyche. Along the sides of the ceiling, Raphael depicts other constituents of the story. The beginning panel shows Venus pointing downwards age discussing her plan with Cupid. This room clearly carries the subjects of reputation and love in a very non-Jew manner. Raphael successfully intertwines the characters and the stylus of painting while following more realistic and 3-dimensional Renaissance art.Sala delle prospectiveThe name of this room works perfectly. The side frescoes, designed and painted by Baldassare Peruzzi, depict columns going into the distance. Agostino commissioned him in 1519. When standing in the vegetable marrow of the room, the columns follow perfect perspective. Painted with detail, they imitate dark veined marble. They dumbfound an architectural foreground to the countryside background that builds on the illusion of nature inwardly the villa. These views conveniently tie in the traditional villa scene because villas were usually reinforced in the suburbs. The continuation of the floor into the fresco emphasizes the illusion and carries the viewer out. Divinities reside above the doors and windows and a frieze of mythological scenes rakehell the ceiling. The forge of Vul good deal has a meet placement on the northern side, above the fireplace. Deeply coffered squares tile the ceiling and give the room a sense of depth. This room clearly plays on illusions of space and successfully engages the viewer to peer out and interact with nature.Sala di SodomaThis room is also known as the Agostinos bedroom and was commissioned in 1519. base on balls in, the walls are completely frescoed. The coffered ceiling depicts scenes from mythology, again display more pagan references. The most eye-catching aspect of the room is Sodomas Marriage of Alexander and Roxanne. Roxanne twists her proboscis as she gazes to the outstretched hand of Alexander. Cherubs occupy a large portion of room along the top of the fresco and within. A few even tug at Roxannes limbs. The paintings on the side show people in battle and heading towards the marriage. Stairs leading into the fresco draws in and interacts with the viewer. The reoccurring news report of love and drama clearly presides in this room. Many believe the marriage scene reflects Agostinos third marriage to Francesca Andreazza. His martial ceremony, performed by Leo X, genuinely took place in the Villa Chigi. Thus, the frescoed theme of marriage and love properly line the private bedroom as a place of their union.FunctionThe Villa Farnesina unfeignedly embodied its purpose of entertainment. Agostino Chigi used this construction for parties, formal dinners, his wedding, theatrical performances and more. The amount of specie and time put into the villa shows how ostentatious Chigi felt about showing his f ortune. Agostino Chigi would serve dinner guests on lavish plates of silver. To demonstrate his abundance of money to his company, he would order his servants to toss the silverware out of the windows and into the Tiber after their meals. Secretly nets in the water caught the pieces of eatery and eventually made their way back to the villa.Architectural choices by Peruzzi emphasize the theatrical purpose of the building. Peruzzi alludes to the function by using Vitruvian authority. Vitruvius explains the design of Roman theatre through arithmetic ratios. Lower stories should have pedestals and an entablature singly one third and one fifth the point of its columns while upper berth storey pedestals have half the height and columns have three fourths the height of their lower level counterparts. Peruzzi followed the advice with exactness.In the early 1500s, theatrical events adapted to their surround not the other way around. The u-shape, and open Loggia di Psyche lay downs an ide al bourn for performances. At the time, a raised stage flanked the two wings to line the loggia. Actors entered from the rooms openings. Thoughtfully, the frescoes in the Loggia di Psyche just cover the ceiling while the paintings on the walls restrict themselves to architectural and patterned designs. This made setting changes and backdrops easier to create and adapt to during performances. Illusionary perspective and Muses carrying tragic and comic masks along the walls remain the theatrical implications upstairs in the Sala delle Prospettive.Goals of the PatronThe design of creating a building to function as a location for entertainment, partying and showing the wealth of the Chigi family definitely succeeded. In addition, bringing nature into the building presents another major goal when building a villa. At first glance the exterior is seamed with an abundant amount of windows, allowing natural light in and connecting the rooms to nature as much as possible. Furthermore, th e two loggias were originally open. Not solely would that add more light, but sweet smells from the garden and even insects and animals had nettle to the rooms.The Loggia di Psyche served as the original entrance into the villa. Observing the ceiling, one can see the impact of nature on the fresco. A thick festoon of leaves and a variety of fruit follow the architectural space along the spandrels and ceiling panels. This matches the frieze on the exterior. The earthly colors and background of blue sky incorporate the outside in. Even the semi-circle lunettes above the walls have painted windows with a fictitious outdoor view. The large vertical panels of windows facing the garden overflow the room with daylight. Upstairs, the Sala delle Prospettive creates an illusion of countryside views as one gazes at the frescoes and past the columns. The far-flung horizon generates a feeling of space and infinity. In Sala di Sodoma, Alexander and Roxannes courtship is in a covered area, but effort was made to continue the story outdoors on the side frescoes, and in the background of the main fresco. Nature clearly impacted the villa as a major theme throughout the entire building.ConclusionThe Villa Farnesina houses art from some of the most magnanimous figures of its time. Each room tells a different story as one can only imagine the splendor and extravagance Agostino Chigi must have experienced when entertaining guests in his new villa.After the Chigi sold the building to the Farnese family, the Farnese made plans to connect it by bridge with the Palazzo Farnese. Building began but never completed. In later centuries the Bourbon of Naples owned it, and the Spanish Ambassador in Rome. nowadays the Italian state has used it for the Accademia dei Lincei and the Gabinetto dei Disegnie dell Stampe. The harmonious architecture, meaningful proportions, modern and eye-catching frescoes swimming in pagan themes of nature and love result attract passers by and art fanatics for many years to come.

Tourism as a boost to economic growth in African countries; the case of Cameroon

Tourism as a boost to economical offset in Afri burn countries the case of CameroonABSTRACTTourism is viewed worldwide as a strategy to bring in foreign currency with the show casing of local anaesthetic adepts, works of arts and cultures ranging from food to dressing. This alike obtains in Africa and Cameroon in particular. Tourism is seen as a major p arntage of in diminish for the g overnment and offers employment opportunities to thou backb atomic number 53s of its citizens. Cameroon is diethylstilbestrolcribed as Africa in miniature belike because of its rich touristic potentials.This paper will thitherfore focus on the development of touristic potentials in Cameroon, public perception of touristry, the management of revenue from touristry and the over only economic gains it providiethylstilbesterol to the expanse.IntroductionCameroon is a Central Afri suffer nation on the Gulf of Guinea, bordered by Nigeria, Chad, the Central Afri toilet Republic, the Republic of Congo, equatorial Guinea, and Gabon. Cameroons estimated 250 pagan groups form five whacking fieldal-cultural groups atomic number 74ern bluelanders (or grassfielders), including the Bamileke, Bamoun, and legion(predicate) littler entities in the northwardswest (est. 38% of population) coastal tropical forest flocks, including the Bassa, Douala, and many splendider entities in the S divulgehwest (12%) s knocked expose(p)hboundern tropical forest peoples, including the Ewondo, Bulu, and Fang (all Beti subgroups), Maka and Pygmies (officially called Bakas) (18%) predominantly Islamic peoples of the blue semi-arid sections (the Sahel) and primaeval highlands, including the Fulani, in any case k straightwayn as Peuhl in French (14%) and the Kirdi, non-Islamic or tardily Islamic peoples of the northern desert and central highlands (18%).The people concentrated in the Southwest and Northwest arasaround Buea and Bamendause standard side and pidgin, as get a lineably as their local languages. In the three northern regions Adamawa, North, and Far NorthFrench and Fulfulde, the language of the Fulani, atomic number 18 widely spoken. Elsewhere, French is the principal language, although pidgin and slightly(a) local languages such(prenominal) as Ewondo, the dialect of a Beti clan from the capital of Cameroon airfield, to a fault is widely spoken. Although Yaounde is Cameroons administrative capital, Douala is the large-scalest and the economic capital with the briny seaport, and primary(prenominal) industrial and commercial centers.The western highlands argon amongst the about juicy regions in Cameroon and substantiate a relatively healthy surround in higher altitudes. This region is densely populated and has intensive agriculture, commerce, cohesive communities, and diachronic emigration pressures. From here, the Bantu migrations into tocopherolern, conspiracyern, and central Africa ar believed to perk up originated about 2,000 geezerh ood ago. Bamileke people from this atomic number 18a make believe in recent social classs migrated to towns elsewhere in Cameroon, such as the coastal regions, where they form often of the assembly line community. About 20,000 non-Afri batchs, including more than 6,000 French and 2,400 U. S. citizens, reside in Cameroon.HISTORYThe soonest inhabitants of Cameroon were probably the Bakas (Pygmies). They still inhabit the forests of the South and East regions. During the late 1770s and wee 1800s, the Fulani, a pastoral Islamic people of the western Sahel, conquered most of what is now northern Cameroon, subjugating or displacing its more often than not non- Islamic inhabitants.Although the Portuguese arrived on Cameroons coast in the 1500s, malaria prevented significant European settlement and conquest of the interior until the late 1870s, when large supplies of the malaria suppressant, quinine, became available. The early European heraldic bearing in Cameroon was primarily d evoted to coastal business deal and the acquisition of slaves. The northern part of Cameroon was an heavy part of the Muslim slave trade ne iirk. The slave trade was largely suppressed by the mid-nineteenth century. Christian missions established a presence in the late 19th century and continue to play a role in Cameroonian life. Beginning in 1884, all of present-day Cameroon and parts of several of its neighbors became the German colony of Kamerun, with a capital first at Buea and later at Yaounde. After ball War I, this colony was partitioned between Britain and France down the stairs a June 28, 1919 League of Nations mandate. France gained the larger geographical sh ar, transferred outlying regions to neighboring French colonies, and rule the rest from Yaounde. Britains landa strip bordering Nigeria from the sea to Lake Chad, with an equal populationwas ruled from Lagos.In 1955, the outlaw Union of the Peoples of Cameroon (UPC), based largely among the Bamileke and Bassa eth nic groups, began an armed struggle for independence in French Cameroon. This rebellion continued, with diminishing intensity, even after independence. Estimates of deaths from this difference of opinion vary from tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands.French Cameroon achieved independence in 1960 as the Republic of Cameroon. The quest year the largely Muslim northern two-thirds of British Cameroon voted to join Nigeria the largely Christian southern third voted to join with the Republic of Cameroon to form the federal official Republic of Cameroon. The formerly French and British regions from each one maintained existent autonomy. Ahmadou Ahidjo, a French-educated Fulani, was chosen President of the federation in 1961. Ahidjo, relying on a pervasive internal security apparatus, outlawed all policy-making parties barely his own in 1966. He successfully suppressed the UPC rebellion, capturing the last important rebel leader in 1970. In 1972, a modernistic makeup replaced the federation with a unitary state.Ahidjo resigned as President in 1982 and was constitutionally succeeded by his Prime Minister, Paul Biya, a career official from the Bulu-Beti ethnic group. Ahidjo later regretted his choice of successors, entirely his die harders failed to overthrow Biya in a 1984 coup detat attempt. Biya won item-by-item-candidate elections in 1984 and 1988 and flawed multi troupe elections in 1992, 1997, and 2004. His Cameroon Peoples Democratic Movement (CPDM) party holds a sizeable majority in the legislature pursual 2007 elections153 deputies out of a essence of 180.ECONOMYCameroon is endowed with an abundance of natural resources, including in the agricultural, mining, forestry, oil and gas sectors. Cameroon is the commercial and economic leader in the CEMAC sub-region, although regional trade, especially with Nigeria, remains under-realized.Cameroons economy is passing dependent on wide exports, and swings in world prices strongly affect its gain . Cameroons economic development has been keep by economic mismanagement, pervasive corruption, and a challenging business environment (for local and foreign investors). Cameroon remains one of the lowest-ranked economies on the World Banks yearbook Doing Business and similar surveys and regularly ranks among the most corrupt countries in the world. over the last 3 years, GDP branch has averaged around 2%-3%, which is around on par with population growth further not lavish to significantly reduce high poverty levels. Despite boasting a higher GDP per capita than either Senegal or Ghana, Cameroon lags behind these two countries in important socio-economic indicators, including health and education. The government has professed a determination to foster imperative economic growth and job creation, and there is a decided uptick in interest in the mining sector and infrastructure development.For a quarter-century following independence, Cameroon was one of the most prosperous co untries in Africa. The drop in commodity prices for its principal exportsoil, cocoa, coffee, and cottonin the mid-1980s, combined with an overvalued currency and economic mismanagement, led to a decade- massive recession. received per capita gross domestic product (GDP) fell by more than 60% from 1986 to 1994. The current account and fiscal deficits widened, and foreign debt grew. The government embarked upon a serial publication of economic reform computer programs supported by the World Bank and outside(a) Monetary Fund (IMF) beginning in the late 1980s. Many of these measures have been painful, including the governments slashing of civil service salaries by 50% in 1993. The CFA francthe vulgar currency of Cameroon and 13 another(prenominal) African stateswas devalued by 50% in January 1994. The conjunction of these two events meant an overall drop in purchasing power of nearly 65%. The government failed to meet the conditions of the first quadruplet IMF programs. A 3-year Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) approved by the IMF in October 2005 ended in 2008. Cameroon has not negotiated any newfound IMF program but is continuing cooperation with the Fund under Article IV consultations. In 2009, the IMF disbursed $144 one thousand one thousand million to Cameroon under its Exogenous Shocks Facility to help with the cause of the global economic crisis.Official statistics for 2009 had inflation at 5.3%, indicating a debilitative of Cameroonians spending power. Public frustration over rising prices was partly to lodge for an outbreak of social unrest andviolence in many Cameroonian cities in February 2008. In March 2008, the government announced a lessening in food import tariffs and other measures designed to reduce the greet of basic commodities. The global economic crisis has seriously impacted Cameroons oil, cotton, timber, and rubber sectors, discourage exports, growth, and overall consumption.The government has made halting progres s on its privatization program. The subject Water Utility Corporation (SNEC) was split into two entities. CAMWATERto handle infrastructureremains in government hands, and a reformed SNEC is now owned by a consortium led by Moroccan Water Utility. Plans to privatize the matter air company CAMAIR and national telecom CAMTEL, however, have repeatedly faltered because of political sensitivities and concerns about corruption. CAMAIR was declared officially defunct and ceased to operate in may 2008 its replacement, CAMAIR-CO, has announced its intention to commence flights in early 2012. CAMTEL remains under the control of the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications.The European Union is Cameroons main trading bloc, accounting for 36.6% of total imports and 66.1% of exports. France is Cameroons main trading partner, but the United States is the leading investor in Cameroon (largely finished the Chad-Cameroon pipeline and energy provider AES Sonel). According to press reports, China r ecently became the procedure one importer ofCameroonian exports, especially unprocessed timber.The map of CameroonCameroon geographicsThe climate of Cameroon is mainly tropical along the coast but it is acerbic in the north. The land of the country is diverse, starting form the coastal nude to hinge uponains, plateau to plains. Volcanic activity from Lake Nyos and Lake Monoun volcanoes often take place.The natural resources of this country are iron ore, timber, bauxite, hydropower and petroleum. The agricultural products of Cameroon are coffee, bananas, cocoa, cotton, oilseed, grains, livestock, rubber and root starches. geographics of Cameroon reveals that deforestation, poaching, overfishing, overgrazing are becoming environmental issues currently.In Cameroon the southern part has got two dry seasons from November to March and June to August. The climate of the northern part is comparatively comfortable. The temperature varies from 23 degree to 26 degree C. This central plate au receives 150 cm to 60 cm rain set a year. The dry season of this region continues from October to March.Tourism in CameroonTourism in Cameroon is a growing but relatively minor industry. Since the 1970s, the government of Cameroon has cultivated the industry by creating a ministry of tourism, encouraging investment by airlines, hotels, and lead agencies. Many hotels, restaurants and guesthouses have self-aggrandizing over the years to offer good accommodation facilities to the tourists, as such more cameroonians are being employed.All of Africa in a single Country. This is a slogan of inspiration for all those who visit Cameroon and especially for expserts in Cameroons Ministry of Tourism. This country offers all major characteristics that can be nominate in other countries in Africa a highly diverse cultural minimise found in more than 200 ethnic groups, an exceptional geological, bionomic and botanic potential, wildlife in its natural form and varied climatic conditions. Th is is the main reason why tourism is ranked 10th top precession of the President and his collaborators. The objective is to make Cameroon a leading tourist destination. The add together of tourists coming to Cameroon increased from 200 000 in 2001 to about 300 000 in 2003 and this figure has steadily increased over the years. The objective in 2003 was to expose 500 000 visitors.Cameroon has more than 200 ethnic groups with over 233 languages spoken and a kind of cultural activities. at that place are also ecotourist potentials that can be developed from North to south and from East to West thanks to the highly contrasting landscape. Mountaineering and tourism on messains can also be honorable on the mountain ranges that are found all over the country. Safarican also be practiced by tour the multitude of field of drive parks which contain a diversity of mammals, shuttlecocks and other beasts. Henceforth a safari could be a visit to Waza to realise animals, then back to th e Northern parks like that of Bouba Ndjidah, or Korup in the south and the Dja national patrimony to admire the riches of nature.The some what median(a) position of Cameroon in Africa makes it really summarize a good number of characteristics of the continent, causing some people refer to it as Africa in miniature. From the leafy vegetable dense south dominated by the Equatorial forest, there is a gradual change towards a low green savanna and steppe towards the north. The Hesperian section of the country is dominated by a high relief, also dominated by savannah meanwhile the littoral section of the country has an extensive coastline marked by grayish yellow fine sands. There are also interesting aspects of the landscape marked by hypnotic grades, traditions and people. All these have led to different types of tourism which are practiced through out the year depending on the seasons.Cameroon has a good situation for sea and beach loving visitors, with about 400 km of the Atlan tic coast stretching along part of the country. Kribi and Limbe towns are the highest points of attraction for tourism on the coast. From these coasts, tourists can also carry out inland tourism to other destinations. In Kribi, there is an excellent beach of white sand excourseing over a large area with coconut trees from meter to time appearing on the scenery. The contact between the Ocean and the sea is also an extraordinary point to see. Another wonder of Kribi is found in the south where a number of cascades of about 30 m high have given rise to waterfalls, the most spectacular being the Lobe fall which issues out directly into the Atlantic Ocean. A little bit higher up this area are fishing villages Ebounja and Ebodje in which the activity is believed to be carried out miraculously. From Lobe, further visits on boats and canoes will take you to the discovery of the Pygmies of the equatorial Forest.The Limbe region is close to Douala and has a splendid site marked by the moun t Cameroon which dominates the Atlantic region of Cameroon. The pathway linking the coast to Douala passes along magnificient plantations of rubber, palms and bananas. The geology of the coastal area is generally characterized by a large expanse of grey sand. overly thanks to the geographic situation Cameroon, there is a high diversity of most living organism and flora species found in Africa, with some that can only be found in Cameroon. There are right away nine national parks serving as a safe haven for wildlife in its natural state. This are areas of safari in which visitors can observe, take photos and feel the presence of animals in nature. The Waza field of study Park is the most popular in Cameroon and one of the most spectacular in francophone shadowy Africa. It is determined in the Far North kingdom and is a nirvana for lions and numerous mammals like giraffes, elephants, cheetahs, leopards etc as well as a long colony of diverse bird species.The Bouba Ndjidah Na tional park is a territory for rhinoceros. There are equally lions, elephants, buffaloes amongst others found here. The Benue National Park is at the heart of the northern region and it is a region with the largest antelopes, hippopotamus, hyenas, panthers, buffaloes etc. The Faro National park has a large number of animals amongst which are buffaloes, rhinoceros, elephants, giraffes etc. The Kalamaloue National Park has elephants, crocodiles and a multitude of birds. The Mozogo Gokoro National park is of high botanical interest, and therefore a good site for research. The Korup national park fixed in the southern part of the country and has one of the oldest and most splendiferous tropical forests in the world. Besides National parks, Cameroon also has a good number of reserves and sanctuaries such as that of Dja and Campo which are great gorilla sanctuaries.Cameroon is also endowed with a rich cultural diversity manifested by a rich and diverse folklore, arts, habitats and way s of life. Every region has a particular folklore and music. In the south there is the Bafia dance, Bekutsi, assiko and others that are very overmuch loved by poets and visitors to the region. In the West, there is the Bamaleke dance, dominated by mantled people dancing in very attractive and picturesque costumes. The north is a whole country of fantasia, marked by decorated horsemen in painted costumes, carrying and blowing long trumpets.Handicrafts and arts are made through out the country but the West and Northern parts of the country are leaders in the sector. Bafoussam, Foumban and Bamenda are towns that are noted for their masks, decorated costumes, chairs created in the form of thrones, pipes, sculptures and statues. In Maroua, there is an attractive multicolored food market of decorated table cloths, locally tanned leather sleepers, bags and wallets of crocodile, snake or iguana skins, bracelets, hand-made carpets and decorative objects in general. There is also a rich hi storic patrimony in this region marked by monuments and antiquities as well as very ancient traditional palaces.Cameroon also has abundant potentials for ecotourism foursome sites can be visited in this respect like the Dja reserve, the Korup National Park, the Limbe botanical garden and the Ebodje village. The Limbe botanical garden was created in 1892 by a German horticulturalist in a bid to cultivate certain crops which were not adapted to the climate of Cameroon. Limbe is situated in the South West, beside the Atlantic Ocean. Several small tracks were created in this garden to facilitate easy access by visitors who come there to admire the natural wonders and biodiversity of the site. Ajungle village was created at the aggregate of the garden for cultural manifestations. It is also a centre for supranational research on biodiversity. Ebodje is a fishing village also located at the borders of the Atlantic Ocean some 50 km from Kribi. Its dishy beaches are a good site for lov ers who can take on excursions in boats organized by fishermen. Ebodje is also a regional site for the protection of marine turtles. The Dja reserve is a world Heritage site declared y UNESCO since 1987. It is located in the south and has the richest natural fauna and flora biodiversity. It has over 1500 animal species amongst which are elephants, gorillas and chimpanzees, more than 107 mammals and a large biodiversity of birds estimated at over 320 bird species. The Korup National park falls amongst one of the oldest Tropical rainforests in the world. Fauna riches in this park can be explained by the fact that this area was not totally modify off during the last ice age. Its fauna is comprised of more than 400 bird species, 140 fish species, numerous mammals and primates. More than 400 flora species have been identified in this area, with numerous medicinal plants. In terms of ecotourism, the presence of 250 fossilized dinosaur footprints at Manangia (Mayo Rey) are also be an attr action, not forgetting the mount Cameroon with its impressive height of 4070m. It is an active volcano, having a number of small rivers crisscrossing its slopes, some falling as rapids or waterfalls. To the north, the Mount Mandara and the sunny landscapes of the Kapsiki present pretty sceneries. This area is inhabited by isolated human groups of people who are animists and live totally preserved from the influence of modern civilizations. An example is the Koma people on the Mount Atlantika. Within the confines of the boundary from the South west coasts of the Atlantic towards the interior, there is a vast expanse of forest phytology that is cut across in several areas by rivers. There are equally towns and especially villages isolated in some areas having traditions that have long existed and keep on passing from generation to generation. Some of these villages are good camping sites. The north has distinct vegetation from the south there is a visible change from dense forests i n the south to a savannah landscape in the north. This begins with a vast expanse of lowland prairies on the Adamawa plateau (grazing zone) towards the north between Maroua and Kousseri on Brobdingnagian dry plains which tend to be dominated by a Sahel steppe vegetation.Culturally, annual traditional festivals are often organized in different areas of the country these are opportunities of beholding different traditional dances and costumes. Examples are the Ngondo of the coastal people, funerals of the Western people, the Ngoun of the Bamoun People which has pop off very popular and the Nyem-Nyem festival in the Adamawa. Big towns like Yaound and Douala with their immense infrastructure of hotels, banks, conference halls and hotels are favorable sites for transnational conferences and business.There are also several possibilities of carrying out leisure activities like golf clubs, darkness clubs, bars,theatre halls and swimming pools. There are more than 50 travel agencies tha t are specialized in organizing tours and taking tourists to different locations ensuring their security, nice hinderance and safe return.Cameroon also has three worldwide airports that regularly serve international flights. There are equally internal flights to the nine alternate airports found in different locations. There is equally a good road network that links the major towns and provincial capitals as well as principal tourist sites in the country. A railway line runs from the south to the north, moving from Douala to Yaounde and finally to Ngaoundere. Cameroon is an ideal tourist destination in Africa and has a good record of security. The population is very welcoming to strangers and has much to offer in terms of culture, arts and behaviors. A visit to Cameroon could be equated to visiting the whole African Continent in summary. It is therefore not wrong to refer to this country as Africa in miniature. pictorial matter 1 Tourist climbing mt, Cameroon South West RegionPic 2 elephants in Waza Park in the Far North RegionPic 3 Palace of the Sultan of the Foumban people in the Western RegionFoumban or Fumban is a city in Cameroon, lying north east of Bafoussam. It has a population of 83,522 (at the 2005 Census). It is a major town for the Bamoun people and is nursing home to a museum of traditional arts and culture. There is also a market and a craft centre, while Foumban Royal Palace contains a museum with teaching on Ibrahim Njoya who invented a new religion and the Shumom alphabet.Pic 4 A Bamun artisan in FoumbanThough touristy, Foumban is one of Cameroons major attractions and an important centre of traditional African art. Its jewel is the Palais Royal, seat of power for the Bamoun people. The ruler of the Bamoun is cognise as the sultan, and the Bamoun can trace the lineage of their sultan back to 1394.The palace, spotless in 1917, resembles a medieval chateau. It houses the Sultans Museum, which contains a multitude of royal gowns, arms, me lodic instruments, statues, jewellery, masks and colourful bead-covered thrones carved in the shapes of the men who sat on them.A few hundred metres south of the palace is the Muse des Arts et des Traditions Bamoun. This extensive collection has exhibits on Bamoun history and art, including homework implements, musical instruments, pipes, statues, masks, gongs and an ornately carved xylophone. The road that connects the two museums is the Rue des Artisans, home to sculptors, basket makers, weavers and embroiderers, and one of the best places in Central Africa to debase wood carvings. The table below show the number of tourists arrival in cameroon since 2000.YEARNUMBER OF TOURISTS ARRIVALS2000277000200122 one C020022260002003300000200419000020051760002006/2007/2008/2009/2010572.73Table 1 Number of tourists arrivals in Cameroon per year since 2000(source African statistical year book, 2009).THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF TOURISM IN CAMEROONThe economic impact of the tourism industry is u sually assessed at the macroconomic level and can be measured in several different ways. mend tourism generates a significant amount of foreign exchange net profit that also contribute to the economic growth of developed countries, such factor of growth has not been effectively harnessed in Africa. According to the World Tourism system of rules (WTO, 2005) estimates, 766 million tourists who traveled world-wide in 2004 generated about $626 one thousand thousand (excluding transport). During the same year, Africa received nearly 5% of the global arrivals (or 33 million tourists), an increase over the 2000 level (28.2 million) of 18% (Dieke, 2004). Similar increases in benefit were also registered, as reflected by the rise in the regions market share increase from 4.1% in 2000 to 4.5% in 2005.The contribution of tourism to economic growth and development is reflected in the form of exports since it represents 40 part of all exports of services, making it one of the largest cate gories of international trade (UNWTO, 2006). In 20005, the tourism sector accounted for 3 % to 10% of the GDP of developing countries (UNWTO, 2005). Consequently, it is not affect to imagine that tourism can be a viable export-oriented economic growth strategy for bringing jobs and development to the people and help in the reduction of abject poverty.Despite its increasing importance in African economies, however, tourism has attracted relatively little attention in the empirical books on economic development. Studies examining cross-country rates of growth and development have largely focused on the contributions of exports from the agricultural and manufacturing sectors, rather than those of the service industry. scour those that explicitly get wind the tourism sector in developing nations are primarily concerned with estimating and forecasting tourism demand and income generation via the multiplier factor process (Sinclair, 1999 Bezmen, 2006).In a recent study of the economi c growth performance of Greece, Dritsakis (2004) shows that tourism has a long haul economic growth effect. development Spains economic data, Balaguer and Cantavella-Jorda (2002) confirm the validity of tourism-led growth hypothesis for long-run economic performance. Oh (2005) for Korea, Tosun (1999), and Guduz and Hatemi (2005) for Turkey have also found empirical support for the tourism-led growth hypothesis. Similarly, employing the convergence approach based on Barro and Sala-i-Martin (1992a) type analysis, Proenca and Soukiazis (2005) examine the impact of tourism on the per capita income growth of Portuguese regions and draw the shutdown that tourism can be considered as an alternative solution for enhancing regional growth in Portugal, if the supply characteristics of this sector are improved. While Cunado and Garcia (2006) also find some evidence of conditional convergence toward the African regional average (for Benin, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Djibouti, Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Uganda, and Zimbabwe) and the U.S. (for Cape Verde, Egypt, Mauritius, Seychelles, and Tunisia), the coverage given to the contribution of tourism has been scant. Comparing the relative growth performance of 14 tourism countries inwardly a sample of 143 countries, Brau, Lanza, and Pigliaru (2003) document that tourism countries grow faster than all the other sub-groups (OECD, Oil Exporting, LDC, Small). Many developing countries have thus started to consider tourism as an important and integral part of their economic growth and development strategies as it serves as a source of scarce monetary resources, job creation, foreign exchange earnings, and technical assistance (Sinclair, 1998 Dieke, 2004).The spending of international tourists positively impacts the economic growth of African countries. a 10 part increase in the spending of international tourists leads to a 0.4 percent 13 increase inthe GDP per capita income. According to the World Tourism Organization (WTO), Sub-Sa haran Africa offers a considerable potential, not only for seaside tourism, but also for environmental and ecotourism, cultural tourism, sports tourism, and discovery tourism. However, this potential remains largely untapped.In economic impact of Tourism, Daniel J. Stynes gives an adequate illilustration of how tourism impacts an economy. He explains as follows A simple tourism impact scenario illustrates. Lets say a region attracts an superfluous 100 tourists, each spending $100 per day. Thats $10,000 in new spending per day in the area. If sustained over a 100 day season, the region would accumulate a million dollars in new sales. The million dollars in spending would be distributed to lodging, restaurant, amusement and retail trade sectors in proportion to how the visitor spends the $100. Perhaps 30% of the million dollars would escape out of the region immediately to cover the costs of goods purchased by tourists that are not made in the local area (only the retail margins fo r such items should normally be included as direct sales set up). The stay $700,000 in direct sales might yield $350,000 in income inwardly tourism industries and support 20 direct tourism jobs. Tourism industries are labor and income intensive, translating a high proportion of sales into income and corresponding jobs. The tourism industry, in turn, buys goods and services from other businesses in the area, and pays out most of the $350,000 in income as wages and salaries to its employees. This creates secondary economic effects in the region. The study might use a sales multiplier of 2.0 to indicate that each dollar of direct sales generates another dollar in secondary sales in this region. Through multiplier effects, the $700,000 in direct sales produces $1.4 million in total sales. These secondary sales create additional income and employment, resulting in a total impact on the region of $1.4 million in sales, $650,000 in income and 35 jobs. While hypothetical, the numbers used here are fairly typical of what one might find in a tourism economic impact study. A more exculpate study might identify which sectors receive the direct and secondary effects and possibly identify differences in spendingand impacts of distinct subgroups of tourists (market segments). One can also estimate the tax effects of this spending by applying local tax rates to the appropriate changes in sales or income. kind of of focusing on visitor spending, one could also est

A Comparative Analysis Of Online News Articles Media Essay

A Comparative synopsis Of On decline News Articles Media Es recordIn European Union citizens be evaluate to take obligation and behaveions to lay out the threat of mode wobble as well as semi policy-making science or corporations. However, musical composition notwithstanding 36 pct of citizens in Lithuanian take mortalised action, 75 percentage of British do. In light of skeleton as media do scheme media reportage net be considered as an explanation for divergent levels of personal contribution. Based on the last mentioned assertion the online newlys content in Lithuania and the United dobriny was investigated in cost of ascription of indebtedness to citizens, authorities and exertion/corporations. The queueings showed that the use of the uniform configurations varies by country and political preferences of media. However, the findings were not explicit enough to prove the one directional consanguinity among media content and individual level behavior, where media is perceived as having power upon individuals. Contrary, the results showed that mixer problems guide thematic choices of editorials and therefore individuals feed impact on media. As a result, findings raised concerns that the plan of inning as an interactive bidding would much relevant than the assumption of figure as linear process. accessToday humour change is on political, media and individual agendas all across Europe. Political and legislative efforts prove that modality change moderateness is a priority for the European Union. Further more, citizens argon expected to take state and actions to limit the threat as well. Supranational survey Eurobarometer shows, 63 percent of Europeans say they have taken personal actions to combat humor change (European Commission, 2009). However, the EU as a body of 27 Member States is more diverse than one seeing sum of money level figures could think. For instance, while wholly 36 percent of citizens in Lithuania n take personal action, 75 percent of British do (European Commission, 2009).The topic of humor change not only has its thematic relevance, but as well scientific. In light of shut in theory media coerage rouse be considered as an explanation for different levels of personal contribution to humor change easing among Lithuanians and British. To assess the twist of media portrayals of climate change on individuals, two enquiry questions are essentialRQ1. To what extent do media tack together climate change in price of ascription of debt instrument to industry and corporations, internationalist and national authorities, and citizens themselves?RQ2. Does the ascription of responsibility to finicky actor vary by country the United Kingdom and Lithuania?To be more specific, I expect to find that Lithuanian media charge responsibility to citizens more seldom compare to British media. Moreover, in media coverage in Lithuania ascription of responsibility to citizens should be le ss visible than ascription of responsibility to authorities or industry. Contrary, in British media attribution of responsibility to citizens should more or equally visible compare to authorities and industry.The bordering chapter go out provide theoretical trammelwork on which the paper rests. It will be followed by the sections of method, results and discussion.Literature re medical prognosisWithin the realm of companionable sciences, such as sociology, psychology, political science and political conversation, studies of framing are common. In a way it explains why framing as a concept is sooner scattered, as Entman once referred to it (Entman, 1993, p. 51). However, scientists of different disciplines share the acquaintance that the function of a frame is to help passel organise the complexity of the world into meaningful categories (Nickels, 2005, p. 21). border as theory can be conceptualized in harm of media do (e.g. Scheufele, 1999 Scheufele, 2000). Generally, med ia effects are classified into cognitive, emotional and behavioural. cognitive effects refer to the assumption that how watchword is cedeed has bend on what people know or think somewhat issues, people, and event (Glynn Jeong, 2003, p. 634). affective effects refer to emotional reactions to media coverage. behavioral effects can be unders withald as observable actions that are linked to media exposure (Perse, 2001, p. 3). What concerns the latter, a widely cited arena of Kahneman and Tversky (1984) showed that how a particular issue is framed determines perceptions of problems and incidental actions upon them (Vliegenthart et al., 2008, p. 419). In view of these considerations, the prominence of framing theory and framing effects studies in the field of communication flows cancelly.In the field of political communication framing effects studies often focus on investigating the kin between news content and individual perceptions (e.g. de Vreese, 2002). Nickels (2005) argue s that partially this is determined by the assumption that the news is the principal means by which they i.e., people experience and canvass (p. 22) about certain issues. A frame in media is an emphasis in salience of certain aspects of a topic (De Vreese, 2002, p. 27). The frame works by omitting some aspects and attaching more salience and meaning to others (Entman, 1993, p. 53). The reasoning of selecting of these aspects can be determined by political, media and social context (De Vreese Semetko, 2004, p. 93). Therefore, media frames can be delimitate as social and cultural indicators of the particular succession (Nickels, 2005, p. 26).Frames in media can be investigated by the presence or absence of certain key-words, source phrases, stereotyped images, sources of information, and sentences that provide thematically reinforcing clusters of facts or judgements (Entman, 1993, p. 52). In general, two main ways to analyze frames can be identified issue-specific and generic w ine. The former is considered to be a better approach to detect newly emerging frames while the latter is found on the investigating of predefined frames in the text (Matthes Kohring, 2008). volume of the studies of generic frames focus on the prevalence of one or some(prenominal) frames in media. Attribution of responsibility (e.g. Iyengar, 1987 Iyengar, 1991 Semetko Valkenburg, 2000 Valkenburg et al., 1999) fall within most normally investigated generic frames. Valkenburg et al. (1999) defines the attribution of responsibility frame as representing an issue or problem in such a way as to property responsibility for causing or solving a problem to the presidential term or to an individual or to a group (p. 552). The biggest advantage of generic approach enables to detect differences or similarities between certain media (or within it), cross-nationally and over time (Nickels, 2005, p.24). However, generic frames are not suitable to explore the new issues as they are derived from theory.Iyengar (1991) measured how individuals attribute responsibility for social problems later on exposure to different content. The research proved that, when television news present issues in term of individual, people tend to attribute responsibility to individuals rather than government. Semetko and Valkenburg (2000) investigated the presence of 5 news frames theoretically derived from prior framing studies attribution of responsibility, conflict, human interest, economic consequences, and morality. Media content was analyzed in the consequence environ the Amsterdam meetings of European heads of state in 1997 (p. 93). The say unveiled that the attribution of responsibility frame was used the most in news. Moreover it showed that attribution of responsibility was more used in serious media both beseech and television.Bennet and Iyengar (2008) argues that today with growing opportunities to personalize media content the way people learn about and experience the soci al world has changed. Therefore, media effects theories have to be reconsidered to go in line with changing social environment. Opponents ingest (e.g. Holbert, Garrett Gleason, 2010), to announce a new era of minimal media effects is too early. Another criticism addressed to framing-effect studies is the commonly used experimental shape, which neglects natural environment people live in and questions generalizability of the findings (Chong Druckman, 2007, p. 102). Those trying to overcome methodological drawback by comparing media content with survey results agree that it is difficult to straighten out out the effects of the media from other environmental or social influences (Glynn Jeong, 2003, p. 633). On the other hand, if effects are proved to be present on individual level under experimental conditions, it is logical to expect them to be present in society at large. To put it in Vliegenthart et al. (2008) words, this does not imply that all citizens are exposed to () news , but that on the aggregate level news coverage has the potential to drive the attitudes of a meaty share of the population (p. 418). To sum up, despite changing media environment and individual habits towards media use, media still often is a primary framer and therefore has the power to determine the tone and scope of the discussion about particular issue.In view of the considerations discussed in this chapter, the present empirical research was based on the assumption that frames in media influence how people think about certain problems and act upon them. To be more specific, that how media frames climate change issue in price of frame of attribution of responsibility affects individual behavior. As in this study aggregate level public opinion surveys results will be compared with media content, I am aware that social or other influences will not be get worded.MethodThe main interest of the current study is to find out if media content are capable of explaining, why people i n some countries are more likely to take personal actions to drive climate change than others. Therefore, two cases representing significant contrasts in citizens behavior were unavoidable The United Kingdom and Lithuania appeared to comply with the condition (Eurobarometer, 2009). Consequently, the comparative design was chosen as it served the aim of the study best. As Hantrais (1996) defined, the aim of comparative cross-national research is to seek explanations for similarities and differences or to gain a greater awareness and a deeper understanding of social reality in different national contexts (Bryman, 2004, p.53). The design was realized in the form of quantitative content analysis of news websites articles in two countries.The content of news was analyzed in terms of the presence of attribution of responsibility frame. The operationalization of this generic frame was mainly based on measures developed by Semetko and Valkenburg (2000). However, as I was interested, t o what extent responsibility is attributed to a particular actor, the frame was divided into three new frames. These are Attribution of responsibility to international and national authorities, attribution of responsibility to industry and corporations, and attribution of responsibility to citizens themselves. Clusters of four yes-no framing questions were used to identify if generic frames are present in analyzed news articles (see Appendix 1).For framing analysis four news websites were chosen Guardian.co.uk and Thetimes.co.uk in the United Kingdom, and Lrytas.lt and Respublika.lt in Lithuania. All of them are websites of popular national papers The Guardian and The Times, and Lietuvos rytas and Respublika, respectively. As the online and tralatitious versions of newspapers share the content, it can be estimated that information reaches young and older, online and traditional newspaper readers at national level in both countries. Furthermore, it was estimated that political co ntroversy of newspapers can influence the findings. According to traditional division of newspapers by political affiliation, Guardian.co.uk. and Respublika.lt was chosen as contestation to go away, and Thetimes.co.uk and Lrytas.lt as leaning to right. The gunpoint of investigation is from 2009 July 1 till 2009 August 1. The choice of the period was determined by the fact that the survey on Europeans attitudes towards climate change (Eurobarometer, 2009) was conducted in 2009 August-September. Therefore, the period had to be prior to survey fieldwork. Only articles with the main topic of climate change/climate change mitigation were selected for framing analysis. In amount of money media sample consisted of 135 articles. However, media coverage varied by country meaningfully N=26 in Lithuania and N=109 in the United Kingdom.Although chosen research design is consistent with the aim of the study, it also has several drawbacks that moldiness be considered. Firstly, small media sa mple may lead to biased results as media coverage was restricted to two news websites in each country. Secondly, the study period of month does not allow measuring the presence of frames in changing political and social environment throughout longer period of time. To put it in other words, the findings show one-time situation. As a result, I am aware that generalization of research outcomes is limited.ResultsThe results of content analysis showed that the frame of attribution of responsibility to citizens in Lithuanian media is more present than in British media (see Table 1), contrary to initial expectations. The most present frame in both countries appeared to be attribution of responsibility to international or national authorities. The Lithuanian media was more likely to use this frame and merely attributed responsibility to international authorities. The British media paid more attention to attribution of responsibility to industry and corporations than Lithuanian.Table 1. Th e presence of attribution of responsibility frame by countryThe findings confirmed that political affiliation plays an important business office in presenting climate change issue. Left leaning websites (Respublika.lt and Guardian.co.uk) appeared to be more likely to attribute responsibility to citizens than left leaning (Lrytas.lt and Thetimes.co.uk). In Respublika.lt 63 percent and in Guardian.co.uk 28 percent of articles contained the latter frame, while only 17 percent in Thetimes.co.uk and none in Lrytas.lt did. Right leaning news sites considerably more discussed climate change issue in terms of attribution of responsibility to international and national authorities than left leaning.Table 2. The presence of attribution of responsibility frame by military issueTo sum up, the media coverage does not seem to be directly tie in to behaviour In Lithuania, where citizens are less likely to combat climate change personally, the frame of attribution of responsibility was more pres ent than in British media. In this case, the personal behaviour in relation to climate change mitigation seems to be a reason for a large or smaller media attention rather than a cause of citizens behaviour. passwordAs is evident from the last chapter, the use of frames of attribution of responsibility in news sites varied by country. However, the variation was not consistent with initial expectations. In terms of presence of attribution of responsibility frame results were diametric than expected In Lithuania the media attributed responsibility to citizens more than media in the United Kingdom. Therefore, the media cannot be considered as a main factor determining low citizens involution in climate change mitigation in Lithuania and high closeness of people in the United Kingdom. In this case the direction of influence is likely to be from individuals to media. Low awareness of climate change mitigation at individual level in Lithuania encourages media editorials to address the problem. As the latter problem is not present in the United Kingdom, the frame of attribution of responsibility to individuals is less present in media. Furthermore, the results go in line with criticism of framing as a one way-communication model. As Nickels (2005) noted, the framing process () is more likely to be an interactive process of dialogue where political, media and public actors have different measures of framing power(p. 32). From this point of view, a relationship between media and individuals should be investigated as an interactive process of negotiation about climate change. In light of such an approach the power of framing of different actors could be assessed more accurately.Both Lithuanian and British media mainly discussed how climate change is tackled at political level while the component part of citizens and industry and corporations received considerably less attention. The prominence of attribution of responsibility to authorities frame should not be sur prising considering policy priorities of the EU. Firstly, the European Union is said to play an important situation as the international agenda setter in relationship to climate change mitigation (Schreurs Tiberghien, 2007, p. 19). Secondly, during the last twenty years the EU managed to turn the encouragement to brace greenhouse gas emissions into legislation. Furthermore, the comparison by political preferences of news websites shows that political affiliation strongly influences the content. Climate change mitigation in terms of citizens behavior in left leaning websites was presented more often than in right leaning. The latter news sites concentrated more on attribution of responsibility to authorities. In total, right leaning news are more balanced according to the frequency of the whole three frames use. Therefore, findings prove a tight relationship between politics and media.The main limits of the study appeared to be related to methodological concerns. A short period of investigation at one particular time does not let to assess if findings can be generalized or they represent only a particular case. Another drawback is that aggregate level data on citizens behavior in relation to climate change mitigation was compared to media content of small sample. Therefore, it would be beneficial for the aim of the study to increase media sample and investigate how changes in media correspond with changes in public opinion/behavior over time. This could be considered as a future research direction in terms of methodological improvements.Besides the information related to the aim of the study, the investigation showed that Lithuanian media uses the frame of attribution of responsibility in context of international personal matters The role of national or local authorities was not mentioned in media once. Contrary, British media paid more attention to national governments policies related to climate change. As the EU is instrumental in climate change mitigati on, it would be intriguing to explore how successful is the EU in setting climate change issue on political agendas of new Member States, i.e. what role governments play in climate change mitigation. Furthermore, media sample of climate change related articles in the United Kingdom appeared to be five time bigger than in Lithuania. Consequently, it would be interesting to investigate to what extent the climate change issue is present compare to the total content media in different countries.In light of media frames the study to show that the use of the same frames varies by country and political preferences of media. However, in light of framing effects the empirically collected data was not explicit enough to shake off light on connection of citizens attitudes and subsequent actions and media content. 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